Community leaders in Portland, Maine are preparing for a growing number of Central American "climate refugees."

Intense storms and drought in the region have devastated many subsistence farms and indigenous areas, forcing people to head north in search of food and shelter.

Crystal Cron, executive director of Presente! Maine, said not all migrants are chasing the American dream.

"Why would people want to leave their homes in such huge droves if they didn't have to?" said Cron.

Portland has long been a resettlement hub for asylum seekers. More than 1,000 arrived in Portland in the first half of 2023 alone.

Cron said climate refugees are joining those already fleeing violence in their home countries and that the U.S. has a responsibility to care for them.

Gov. Janet Mills says these new Mainers could help relieve worker shortages in healthcare, education and construction. Her office has set a target of attracting 75,000 new workers in the next several years.

Kristina Egan, executive director of the Greater Portland Council of Governments, said the state should welcome the people who can help build its future.

"We need some changes to our infrastructure - more housing, more public transportation," said Egan. "But we also need some changes to our mindset so that we in Maine can really open our arms to this great possibility."

Egan said the state already faces a housing crisis but will need to ensure that sprawl doesn't eat up vital agricultural land needed to feed a growing population heading north.

By Stephen Robert Miller for the Food and Environment Reporting Network.
Broadcast version by Eric Galatas for Colorado News Connection reporting for the Solutions Journalism Network-Public News Service Collaboration

If you’ve gone walking in the woods out West lately, you might have encountered a pile of sticks. Or perhaps hundreds of them, heaped as high as your head and strewn about the forest like Viking funeral pyres awaiting a flame.

These slash piles are an increasingly common sight in the American West, as land managers work to thin out unnaturally dense sections of forests — the result of a commitment to fire suppression that has inadvertently increased the risk of devastating megafires.

“We have an epidemic of trees in Colorado,” said Stefan Reinold, a forester with Boulder County’s Parks and Open Space department. In the Rocky Mountain forests that he manages, a century of stamping out wildfires as soon as they arose failed to account for the role fire plays in maintaining healthy forest ecosystems. Today, the resulting abundance of densely packed pines and firs fuels huge blazes.

In response, the federal government has committed nearly $5 billion in the Inflation Reduction Act and Bipartisan Infrastructure Law to thinning forests on about 50 million Western acres over the next 10 years. Although this can be accomplished with prescribed burns, the risk of controlled fires getting out of hand has foresters embracing another solution: selectively sawing trees, then stripping the limbs from their trunks and collecting the debris.

The challenge now is what to do with all those piles of sticks, which create fire hazards of their own. Some environmental scientists believe they have an answer: mushrooms. Fungus has an uncommon knack for transformation. Give it garbage, plastic, even corpses, and it will convert them all into something else — for instance, nutrient-rich soil.

Down where the Rocky Mountains meet the plains, in pockets of forest west of Denver, mycologists like Zach Hedstrom are harnessing this unique trait to transform fire fuel into a valuable asset for local agriculture.

For Hedstrom, the idea sprung from an experiment on a local organic vegetable farm. He and the farm owner had introduced a native oyster mushroom to wood chips from a tree that fell in a windstorm. “That experiment showed us that the native fungi were helping to accelerate the decomposition really substantially,” he said. Working with local governments, environmental coalitions, and farmers, he is now honing the method.

As part of its regional strategy, the U.S. Forest Service plans to thin more than 47 square miles — an area larger than Disney World — along Colorado’s Front Range. Hundreds of thousands of slash piles already lay in wait here until conditions are right for burning. Ideally, this means snow on the ground, moisture in the air, and little wind. It can be a hard recipe to come by.

When slash piles are set alight, they burn longer and hotter than most wildfires over a concentrated area. This leaves behind blistered soil where native vegetation struggles for decades to take root. As an alternative, foresters have tried chipping trees on-site and broadcasting the mulch across the forest floor, where it degrades at a snail’s pace in the arid climate. Boulder County also carts some of its slash to biomass heating systems at two public buildings. “We’re removing a ton of wood out of forests for fire mitigation,” Hedstrom said. “This is not a super sustainable way of managing it.”

He hopes to show that fungi can do it better.

Jeffrey Ravage is a forester with the Coalition for the Upper South Platte, which manages protection and restoration of a more-than-million-acre watershed in the mountains southwest of Denver. He describes the action of saprophytes, a type of fungi that feeds off dead organic matter, as “cold fire.”

Like a flame, saprophytic fungi break organic material into carbon compounds. Mycelium, the often unseen, root-like structure of the fungi, secretes digestive enzymes that release nutrients from the substrate it consumes. Whereas a flame destroys nearly all organic nitrogen, mycelium can fortify nitrogen where it’s needed in the forest floor.

“We do hundreds to thousands of acres of fire mitigation a year,” Ravage said.

Standard thinning costs somewhere around $3,000 per acre, about a third of which is spent hauling out or burning the slash. Using mycelium could drastically reduce that cost. With the right kind of fungi, Ravage said, “we can do in five years what nature could take 50 years to a century to do: create organic soil.”

Though the method is new, it’s not untried. At the Balcones Canyonlands Preserve, north of Austin, Texas, biologist Lisa O’Donnell deploys mycelium to combat invasive glossy privet that spills over from surrounding urban sprawl. After the intrusive trees are cut and piled, volunteers inoculate — or seed — them with native turkey tail fungi, which take about three years to transform hard logs into crumbly sponges.

Eventually, the woody material breaks down into a rich and water-retentive loam that O’Donnell uses to rebuild the Balcones’ deteriorated soils. “You don’t have to burn it or haul it out. You’re using that biomass, keeping it in place and recycling it,” she said. “You’re turning a negative into a positive.”

For mycelium to be a truly viable solution to wildfires, however, it would have to work at the scale of the Western landscape. Hedstrom is experimenting with brewing mycelium into a liquid that can be sprayed across hundreds of acres. “It’s a novel biotech solution that has great promise but is in the early stages,” he said.

Ravage doubts it could be so easy. “Half the battle is how you target the slash,” he said. Success stories like the Balcones are rare. Ravage has spent a decade cultivating wild saprophytes and perfecting methods of applying them in Colorado’s forests.

He begins by mulching slash to give his fungi a head start. Then he seeds the mulch with spawn, or spores that have already begun growing on blocks of the same material, and wets them down. Fungi require damp conditions and will survive in the mulch if it is piled deeply enough. Given the changing character of Western forests, however, aridity poses a serious hurdle.

At his lab in the Rockies, Ravage grows about a ton of spawn annually. To meet the demands of forest-fire mitigation, he wants to produce 12 tons every week. This presents an opportunity for intrepid mushroom farmers, should the government choose to fund them, but it’s not the only way agriculture could benefit. “There’s going to be a lot of wood chip waste continuously coming out of the forest,” said Andy Breiter, a rancher in Boulder County. “We can use those resources.”

Some Front Range farmers pay to truck in compost from Vermont. Instead of adding synthetic fertilizers or importing compost, Breiter is using Hedstrom’s mycelium to turn forest slash into organic soil that he can work into his degraded land. “I’m trying to increase the productivity of my land while recognizing that past systems of productivity created these problems to begin with,” Breiter said.


Stephen Robert Miller wrote this article for the Food and Environment Reporting Network.


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Bills addressing climate change are some of the biggest casualties of Connecticut's legislative session.

One in particular is House Bill 5004, an all-inclusive bill designed to implement reforms keeping the state climate goals on track. The bill failed in the Senate, due to Democrats not giving enough time to consider it and Republican threats to filibuster it.

Samantha Dynowski, state director of the Connecticut chapter of the Sierra Club, said climate action is not moving in the right direction.

"They clawed back the climate legislation they passed three years ago by not passing the clean transportation regs that were presented to the Legislature in late 2023," Dynowski pointed out. "Not only are we not making progress forward, we're actually taking steps backward."

While the bill had wide support, some felt it encroached on their freedoms and limited energy supply competition. Dynowski argued climate legislation's need is only growing beyond climate impacts. A recent report shows greenhouse gas emissions grew in 2021, a trend set to continue without legislative action.

While some bills failed in committee, others did not pass a vote in one of the General Assembly's chambers. Dynowski contended climate action was not as much of a priority for lawmakers as it should have been but she acknowledged there was movement on some issues.

"There was in the bonding package, $25 million for heat pump deployment, so that will be helpful," Dynowski emphasized. "And in the ARPA funding package, a program for school solar and a requirement that all school districts will assess schools for solar."

A state watchdog report said one priority should be boosting electric vehicle use. It has not been easy since misinformation made some lawmakers reluctant to pass cleaner emission standards.

Proposed standards last year required 90% cleaner emissions from internal combustion engines and that carmakers deliver 100% zero-emission vehicles by 2035.

Moms from a nonpartisan climate science group are gearing up for summer, getting the word out to Pennsylvania families on how more frequent and extreme weather events can affect children.

Last year, the U.S. experienced 28 separate weather and climate disasters, including a wildfire in Hawaii, tornado outbreaks and major flooding events.

Tracey Holloway, professor of energy analysis and policy at the University of Wisconsin Madison and a member of the group "Science Moms," pointed out mothers are often the decision makers for their household purchases, so doing some research can make a difference.

"Climate change is a real issue and there are real solutions," Holloway pointed out. "When we're making big purchases, to be thinking about whether this is a purchase that's going to move things forward in the right way; whether it's an electric vehicle, rather than one that uses a lot of gasoline, or an energy-efficient dishwasher."

According to a Climate Change Impacts Assessment from the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection, rainfall in the state is expected to increase by an average of 8% annually, with winter and spring seeing the most significant surges.

Holloway added it is important to move toward cleaner energy quickly, as it will help families to be healthier in the long run.

"Almost anything we do to reduce carbon emissions also reduces emissions of a lot of other chemicals in the air," Holloway noted. "These include nitrogen oxides and particulate matter, and cancer-causing chemicals. So, there are immediate health benefits from moving to clean energy."

She added many climate solutions lie not with individuals, but with corporations producing energy and manufacturing vehicles, as well as with the elected officials who shape policies. She encouraged moms in Pennsylvania to share information, speak up and work with lawmakers on solutions for climate change.


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