The city where you live could be making you, your family and your friends more unconsciously racist, or by contrast, it could make you less racist.
Study findings from New Mexico's Santa Fe Institute show how population, diversity and segregation combine to form a person's unconscious racial bias.
Andrew Stier, a psychologist, postdoctoral fellow at the Santa Fe Institute and lead author of the study, examined why it is true in some cities more than others. He said the research showed those who rub elbows with many different kinds of people revealed less prejudice.
"You learn to do that because you interact with people that are different from you, and you learn something that is not a stereotype of about them, and you think of that person as a person," Stier explained.
Stier pointed out diverse interactions force people to adapt to new situations and learning. The study is based on data from the popular online "Implicit Association Test," which asks volunteer participants to categorize their response when given a pairing of white or Black faces with positive or negative words. A faster association of white equals "good" or black equals "bad" can show inherent racial bias.
To build their model, the researchers took the average bias scores from almost 3 million individuals in different geographic areas and linked them to racial demographics and population data from the U.S. Census. Stier emphasized many cities create dense and diverse networks of social interaction, but not all, including Chicago where he lived for 10 years.
"If you have a city that is very diverse, but very segregated like Chicago is, that diversity doesn't get you that much in terms of not being racist," Stier observed. "It's not just the psychology but also who you can access and what types of opportunities you can have."
He noted in cities where people cannot encounter and interact with people and institutions used by other groups, racial biases create major barriers to equity and amplify disparities including access to medical care, education, employment, policing, mental health outcomes and physical health.
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The racial reckoning spurred by George Floyd's murder got the public's attention about possible progress in ending wealth disparities. A Black-led Minnesota foundation says hope may have faded for some, but community partners are undeterred.
The fifth anniversary of Floyd's murder is this Sunday, and fresh 'think pieces' point out that corporate pledges of financial support are more muted these days, especially with political backlash against Diversity, Equity and Inclusion efforts.
Lulete Mola, co-founder and president of the Black Collective Foundation of Minnesota, said when they started up after 2020, they were warned by advocates tied to other historic events that this would happen.
"We're in a long movement arc of racial justice," Mola said. "It did not start in 2020. It started from the day Black people touched the soil of this land."
Because of those generational experiences, she said, Black communities have a daily commitment that goes beyond statistics about disparities. For example, grantees through her foundation emphasize a sense of identity for neighborhoods and minority-owned businesses in creating a prosperous future.
Mola suggested that can be more powerful than feeling beholden to a corporate-backed vision. Still, she said long-term corporate support is welcome, should CEOs decide to re-engage. She acknowledged the recent political shift is disruptive to the racial justice movement and that groups on the ground have to pivot as they try to improve outcomes.
"We may not see those numbers change five years after 2020," she said. "It may take 10 years, it may take 15 years. But I do have faith that what we've started and how we're moving here in the Twin Cities will garner results - that creates a very different community than the ones we experienced in 2020."
Mola pointed to a large body of research showing that improving the lives of Black people benefits all of society. That includes increased workforce participation, higher levels of consumer spending and less pressure on the criminal-justice system.
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Just days before the fifth anniversary of George Floyd's murder, the Trump administration announced it will try to end federal reform efforts involving Minneapolis police. City leaders and activists say it won't stop their work.
The Justice Department on Wednesday said it's moving to get lawsuits dismissed that led to a proposed consent decree for the Minneapolis Police Department.
Under the Biden administration, an investigation of MPD found widespread civil rights violations, including discrimination against Black people and Native Americans.
Michelle Gross, president of Communities United Against Police Brutality, criticized the DOJ's latest move, and its timing.
"I think a lot of it is really just pour[ing] salt in the wound of the community that is still healing from that. And so, I think it's very outrageous," Gross said.
Justice Department officials insist it was court deadlines, not the anniversary, that drove the announcement. They said the investigation relied on flawed methodologies and incomplete data. But Gross said problems remain, and they'll challenge the petition in court.
City officials say they'll carry on with guidelines from the consent decree, citing progress from a new independent analysis.
That report is tied to a separate agreement reached with the Minnesota Department of Human Rights following Floyd's murder. Gross said complying with those mandates is valuable, but added that the federal oversight is still needed.
"There are some things in the DOJ consent decree that we wanted, particularly addressing things like overtime, addressing things like Minneapolis police interactions with youth," she continued.
On overtime, reform advocates say leaning on it too much leads to officer burnout, worsening the culture within the police force. Elsewhere, the Justice Department also is trying to undo reforms for the Louisville Police Department.
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This Sunday, racial-justice advocates will observe the fifth anniversary of George Floyd's murder. A Minnesota professor who has written about activism surrounding Floyd's case says the movement still has legs to it, despite recent rhetoric.
When a handful of Minneapolis police offers were convicted on charges related to Floyd's murder, it capped off a global wave of heightened activism about confronting systemic racism.
Michelle Phelps, a University of Minnesota sociologist, released a book last year on the local push to challenge police violence. She said it's a complex topic, acknowledging the broader mood today has changed somewhat. But Phelps points to lasting impacts.
"The expansion of unarmed mental and behavioral health crisis-response units, which have actually developed in cities across the country [is seen] as one of the ways that jurisdictions are trying to respond to figure out who's best suited to respond to 911 calls," Phelps explained.
She said that stands tall amid a shift in policies related to policing.
A flurry of accountability laws surfaced around the U.S. after Floyd's murder, but some are being scaled back. Minneapolis officials say they're still committed to long-term changes, but beyond law-enforcement, new data show continued disparities in Minnesota. That includes a widening homeownership gap for the state's Black population.
The worldwide response to Floyd's murder saw statements of solidarity extended to the Black Lives Matter movement, from corporations and other key entities. Phelps said based on historical trends, it's not surprising to see some backlash since then. But she says the toned-down enthusiasm in 2025 doesn't erase what happened in 2020.
"It means that there was a moment of questioning, and I think that's exactly what we saw in Minneapolis and nationally, is there was this moment of awareness and conversation about structural racism that was really profound, even if it was short-lived," she continued.
Phelps added the seeds that were planted several years ago are likely to stay in the minds of young adults who have come of age during this era. She suggested it will be one of the many complicated events that influence their political engagement in the years to come.
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